• Aryans further moved towards the east in the Later Vedic Period. The Satapatha brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains 
• Later Vedic literature mentioned several tribal groups and kingdoms 
• Growth of large kingdoms- important development, Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning
• After the fall of the Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence
• The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatashatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya
• Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal kingdoms
• The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions in India- Aryavarta, Madhyadesa, Dakshinapatha

Political organization:

• Large kingdoms were formed, and so royal power increased 
• Janapadas or rashtras- many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form it
• The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position which include 
• Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice), Vajpeya (chariot race)
• Other officials were involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita, senani and gramani
• They include the treasury officer, tax collector and royal messenger
• Administration at the lower levels was carried on by the village assemblies 
• The importance of the Sabha and Samiti had diminished during the later vedic period 

Economic conditions:

• Iron was used extensively and with the knowledge of the use of iron, they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation
• Agriculture became chief occupation 
• Besides barley, rice and wheat were grown 
• Knowledge of manure was an improvement 
• Foreign trade also became extensive l
• A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence
• Vaishyas carried on trade and commerce in guilds known as ganas
• Besides nishka, gold and silver coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange

Social life:

• There were four divisions of the society
• The two higher classes of Brahmans and Kshatriyas enjoyed more privileges than the Vaisyas and Shudras
• Patriarchy was prevalent 
• Women were considered subordinate to men
• Women lost their political rights 
• Child marriages became common

Religion:

• Early Vedic nature Gods lost their importance 
• Prajapati (creator), Vishnu (protector), Rudra (destroyer)
• Sacrifices became important and rituals more elaborate 
• Importance of prayers declined and that of sacrifice increased
• Rise of Buddhism and Jainism 
• Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge for peace and salvation